Artificial textile fibres part 4 of 6

Discovering man-made fibres: innovation, sustainability and versatility in textiles

Continuing our journey within the textile industry, man-made fibres represent a perfect balance between nature, innovation and creativity. Derived from cellulose, these fibres, such as viscose, modal, lyocell and cupro, offer a unique combination of softness, breathability and refined aesthetics, approaching the qualities of silk, but with greater versatility and sustainability.

In this article, we will explore the history and evolution of man-made fibres, their economic and technological impact, their chemical and physical characteristics, and their multiple uses in clothing and technical textiles. We will also analyse their role in sustainable fashion and how they compare with natural and synthetic fibres.

Artificial fibres, often referred to as “regenerated” because they are derived from cellulose (extracted mainly from wood or cotton), were created to combine the merits of natural fibres (such as comfort, breathability and drape) with the possibility of controlled industrial production and, in some cases, lower costs. Among these, viscose is the pioneer, but the panorama also includes modal, lyocell and cupro. The evolution of these materials has marked important milestones in the history of the textile industry, influencing markets, technologies and even social and political dynamics.

Let's start with the historical aspects

The history of man-made fibres began in the late 19th century, with the discovery of the production process for viscose, originally called “artificial silk”. This fibre, obtained from wood cellulose, represented a revolution in textiles, offering a cheaper and more versatile alternative to natural silk.

In 1884, the French chemist Hilaire de Chardonnet patented a process to produce regenerated cellulose fibres, paving the way for what would become viscose. However, the initial production process was expensive and dangerous.

It was not until the early 20th century that British chemists Charles Cross and Edward Bevan developed a more efficient and economical method of producing viscose, using cellulose from wood or other plant materials. This led to the commercialisation of viscose on a large scale, making it a viable alternative to natural silk.

As research progressed, a new fibre was discovered: cupro, made from the cellulose of cotton. Cupro is distinguished by a slightly different solubilisation process, offering a fibre with unique characteristics in terms of strength and appearance.

Subsequently, scientific research led to the development of other artificial fibres, such as modal and lyocell, which aim to improve strength, softness and, above all, environmental sustainability. Modal, derived from the cellulose of beech wood, is distinguished by its softness and lustre, while lyocell, obtained by a closed-loop process that recovers almost 99% of solvents, is considered a more sustainable fibre.

To give a more precise timeline of the discoveries of these fibres:

• Viscosa (late 19th century - 1st patent 1884, modern viscose patent in 1892 by British chemists) → It was the first artificial cellulose fibre, initially called “artificial silk”.
• Cupro (early 1900s - patent in the 1920s) → Derived from cellulose using an ammonia and copper process, known as the cuprammoniacal process.
• Modal (1950s-1960s) → Improved variant of viscose, developed for greater strength and softness.
• Lyocell (1980s-1990s) → More environmentally friendly evolution of man-made fibres, produced in a closed-loop process that recovers almost 99% of solvents.

So, in order of discovery: Viscose → Cupro → Modal → Lyocell, a curiosity these fibres are often also called Rayon, it is a generic term for all man-made fibres derived from regenerated cellulose. It includes viscose, modal, lyocell and cupro; Naturally, these fibres can be twisted or woven with other fibres, both natural and synthetic, creating very beautiful effects both in colour and touch.

These man-made fibres are the result of synergies between scientific discoveries in the field of chemistry and materials engineering, which have made it possible to transform natural raw materials into versatile, high-performance yarns.

What economic and political impact did these discoveries have?

The introduction of these fibres enabled the production of luxurious-looking fabrics, such as silk, at low cost, making elegance and sophistication accessible to a wider public. The industrialisation of textile production fostered economic expansion and generated new market dynamics, also influencing trade policies and environmental regulations. Over time, pressure for more sustainable production drove process innovation, leading to the introduction of closed-loop systems and certifications (such as FSC) to guarantee the sustainable origin of raw materials.

The FSC, Oeko-tex, Woolmark pure new wool certifications, often found on garment tags, guarantee the consumer that the product has been manufactured under strict control standards.

What are the processes for processing and generating the yarn?

Cellulose Regeneration Techniques

• Viscous Process:
  Cellulose (from wood or cotton) is treated with chemicals (traditionally carbon disulphide in an alkaline solution) the resulting pulp is pushed through a “spinneret” that regenerates the yarn. This process produces a fibre with a soft touch and silk-like appearance, although it requires careful handling of solvents.

• Modal:
  Derived from a variant of viscose technology, modal undergoes further processing to increase strength and dimensional stability while maintaining high softness and breathability.

• Lyocell:
  In this process, an organic solvent (N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide, NMMO) is used in a closed-loop system that recovers almost 99% of the solvent, greatly reducing the environmental impact. Lyocell is known for its excellent mechanical strength and smooth, uniform surface.

• Cupro:
  Manufactured through a specific chemical process that dissolves the cellulose of cotton, cupro produces a transparent, lustrous fibre that is particularly popular in high-quality applications.

In common, all these fibres share the characteristic of starting from a source of natural cellulose, which is “melted” and regenerated to obtain yarns with optimised properties. The common point is the possibility of obtaining a fibre with aesthetic and functional characteristics comparable to those of natural fibres, but with greater uniformity and adaptability to industrial processes.

What are the chemical and technical properties?

The chemical characteristics for this type of yarn are: the Cellulosic Base, being derived from cellulose, these fibres are intrinsically biodegradable (except for aggressive chemical treatments) and have a polar structure that favours the absorption of humidity; the other is Modifiability, in fact its chemical structure allows for easy intervention with treatments to improve the fibre's strength, lustre or softness.

The technical characteristics are : Softness and Drape, viscose and modal offer excellent drape, similar to that of silk, making them ideal for elegant dresses and home textiles; they have Mechanical Resistance, in fact lyocell and, to a lesser extent, modal have greater tensile strength than traditional viscose, making them more durable and suitable for intensive use; There is Absorbency and Breathability, because all these fibres excel in terms of absorbency, ensuring comfort in hot climates and effective moisture management; finally, they are Easy to Dye, their structure allows for homogeneous and brilliant colouring, expanding the aesthetic possibilities of fabrics.

What have been the various applications and uses over the years?

Historically, viscose was used to imitate silk in evening dresses, blouses and ties. Today, variants such as modal and lyocell are used for a wide range of garments, from everyday wear to sportswear and technical fabrics, thanks to their breathability and strength. Their use in sportswear and technical fabrics (e.g. waterproof but soft fabrics) highlight the versatility of regenerated fibres, which are adapted to specific functional requirements.

The softness and breathability also make these fibres ideal for underwear and fabrics requiring direct skin contact.

In furniture, man-made fibres are used for tablecloths, bed linen, towels, curtains and furniture upholstery benefit from the combination of elegance and easy-care absorbency and lustre offered by these fibres.

General considerations

The artificial fibres described in this article were created precisely to reproduce silk in a more economical form. Silk is a natural fibre produced by silkworms and, by its very nature, requires laborious biological processes. In contrast, artificial fibres, although starting from natural raw materials (cellulose), are processed industrially, reducing production time and costs.

Silk is renowned for its lustre and exceptional lightness, while artificial fibres try to imitate these aspects while offering greater uniformity and customisation possibilities.

The production itself is expensive and limited, whereas regenerated fibres can be produced on a large scale, making similar-looking fabrics more affordable.

In terms of environmental impact, on the other hand, advanced technologies (such as the closed-loop process of lyocell) make it possible to reduce the impact of man-made fibres, an advantage that, in some cases, can compete with traditional silk production techniques.

Of course, in this article we are talking about man-made fibres, nothing to take away from silk, which is still a precious yarn with a millenary history, it has influenced politics and economics through trade, it is not by chance that in the 2nd century B.C. the Silk Road was born, which represented a crossroads of cultures, ideas and goods, favouring the exchange of scientific, artistic and religious knowledge between different peoples. Silk has been appreciated over the centuries for its beauty and superior quality, and is still today a symbol of luxury and elegance.

Among artificial fibres, we have not mentioned acetate and triacetate, the latter of which has not had much development in textiles, while acetate due to its low water absorption is very suitable for mackintoshes and umbrellas. Shirts/cottons, dresses, linings, ties and women's underwear are also made from it.

What innovations and environmental sustainability have these yarns brought?

It should be borne in mind that we are talking about yarns and fabrics that were discovered more than 100 years ago 140 for viscose and around 40 for lyocell, the latter being the model of sustainability due to the almost total recovery of solvents, reducing pollution and resource consumption.

Over the years, certifications such as FSC and other standards have been introduced, where they guarantee that the raw material (wood or cotton) comes from responsibly managed forests, increasing the ecological credibility of the products.

The industry continues to invest in technologies to improve the performance of man-made fibres, both in terms of strength and durability and in optimising production processes, thus reducing the overall environmental impact.

Thanks to these discoveries, technical fabrics for sportswear have been created that regulate temperature and absorb perspiration; waterproof tablecloths treated to resist water have been made; and, thanks to their biodegradability and eco-friendly processes, they are increasingly used in eco-friendly garments.

Artificial fibres continue to evolve, because of course research does not stop, in fact, intelligent fibres are being studied, i.e. fabrics that react to changes in temperature and humidity (research centres include MIT [with yarns with integrated sensors] Harvard University [with studies on fibres that change shape in response to heat] and Google itself [with Project Jacquard for fabrics with touch capability].

There are regenerated materials that use textile or plastic waste to create new fibres, the centres dealing with this are mainly the US and the UK, and the EU has also started Textile Circularity.

Even more environmentally friendly processes in this case are being explored in Finland (use of ionic liquids to dissolve cellulose without toxic substances) UK (for the use of bacteria-based dyes, again with reduced chemicals) and Austria. Finally, there are fibres from non-conventional sources under study such as “spiber” which are fibres derived from fermented proteins, Bolt Threads which are fibres based on fungi mycelia and finally algae and bacteria with research on bacterial biofilms to create fabrics.

In other words, a continuous search...?

Yes, artificial fibres, represented by viscose, modal, lyocell and cupro, embody the perfect compromise between the qualities of natural fibres and the versatility of industrial materials. Historically, the emergence of viscose as “artificial silk” paved the way for an evolution that democratised luxury and expanded the production possibilities of the textile industry. Economically, these fibres enabled large-scale production, making fine fabrics accessible to an ever-widening public. Chemically and technically, the regeneration process of cellulose has resulted in materials with excellent properties of softness, drape, strength and breathability, with the advantage that they can be customised and improved through constant innovation. Research is making headway for the future of textiles, although all these studies will not necessarily see a use in textiles at least in the immediate future. No comparison can be made with silk, which will always remain a luxury product; if it is to be produced on a large scale, artificial fibres offer more versatile and sustainable solutions.

As you can see, the regenerated fibre landscape demonstrates how the combination of technological innovation and attention to sustainability can provide competitive alternatives, both aesthetically and functionally, meeting the needs of a modern, globalised market.

If you have further questions or would like to contact us, please leave a comment or write to us!